Text2

    Overthepastdecade,thousandsofpatentshavebeengrantedforwhatarecalledbusinessmethods.Amazon.comreceivedoneforits“one-click”onlinepaymentsystem.MerrillLynchgotlegalprotectionforanassetallocationstrategy.Oneinventorpatentedatechniqueforliftingabox.

    Nowthenation’stoppatentcourtappearscompletelyreadytoscalebackonbusiness-methodpatents,whichhavebeencontroversialeversincetheywerefirstauthorized10yearsago.Inamovethathasintellectual-propertylawyersabuzztheU.S.courtofAppealsforthefederalcircuitsaiditwoulduseaparticularcasetoconductabroadreviewofbusiness-methodpatents.InreBilski,asthecaseisknown,is“averybigdeal”,saysDennis’D.CrouchoftheUniversityofMissouriSchooloflaw.It“hasthepotentialtoeliminateanentireclassofpatents.”

    Curbsonbusiness-methodclaimswouldbeadramaticabout-face,becauseitwasthefederalcircuititselfthatintroducedsuchpatentswithis1998decisionintheso-calledstateStreetBankcase,approvingapatentonawayofpoolingmutual-fundassets.Thatrulingproducedanexplosioninbusiness-methodpatentfilings,initiallybyemerginginternetcompaniestryingtostakeoutexclusivepinhtstospecifictypesofonlinetransactions.Later,moveestablishedcompaniesracedtoaddsuchpatentstotheirfiles,ifonlyasadefensivemoveagainstrivalsthatmightbeatthemtothepunch.In2005,IBMnotedinacourtfilingthatithadbeenissuedmorethan300business-methodpatentsdespitethefactthatitquestionedthelegalbasisforgrantingthem.Similarly,someWallStreetinvestmentfilmsarmedthemselveswithpatentsforfinancialproducts,evenastheytookpositionsincourtcasesopposingthepractice.

    TheBilskicaseinvolvesaclaimedpatentonamethodforhedgingriskintheenergymarket.TheFederalcircuitissuedanunusualorderstatingthatthecasewouldbeheardbyall12ofthecourt’sjudges,ratherthanatypicalpanelofthree,andthatoneissueitwantstoevaluateiswhetheritshould”reconsider”itsstatestreetBankruling.

    TheFederalCircuit’sactioncomesinthewakeofaseriesofrecentdecisionsbythesupremeCountthathasnarrowedthescopeofprotectionsforpatentholders.LastApril,forexamplethejusticessignaledthattoomanypatentswerebeingupheldfor“inventions”thatareobvious.ThejudgesontheFederalcircuitare“reactingtotheanti_patenttrendatthesupremecourt”,saysHaroleC.wegner,apartendattorneyandprofessorataeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchool.

    26.Business-methodpatentshaverecentlyarousedconcernbecauseof

    [A]theirlimitedvaluetobusiness

    [B]theirconnectionwithassetallocation

    [C]thepossiblerestrictionontheirgranting

    [D]thecontroversyoverauthorization

    27.WhichofthefollowingistrueoftheBilskicase?

    [A]Itsrulingcomplieswiththecourtdecisions

    [B]Itinvolvesaverybigbusinesstransaction

    [C]IthasbeendismissedbytheFederalCircuit

    [D]ItmaychangethelegalpracticesintheU.S.

    28.Theword“about-face”(Line1,Paro3)mostprobablymeans

    [A]lossofgoodwill

    [B]increaseofhostility

    [C]changeofattitude

    [D]enhancementofdignity

    29.Welearnfromthelasttwoparagraphsthatbusiness-methodpatents

    [A]areimmunetolegalchallenges

    [B]areoftenunnecessarilyissued

    [C]lowertheesteemforpatentholders

    [D]increasetheincidenceofrisks

    30.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethesubjectofthetext?

    [A]Aloomingthreattobusiness-methodpatents

    [B]Protectionforbusiness-methodpatentholders

    [C]Alegalcaseregardingbusiness-methodpatents

    [D]Aprevailingtrendagainstbusiness-methodpatents

    Text3

    InhisbookTheTippingPoint,MalcolmAladuellarguesthatsocialepidemicsaredriveninlargepartbytheactingofatinyminorityofspecialindividuals,oftencalledinfluentials,whoareunusuallyinformed,persuasive,orwell-connected.Theideaisintuitivelycompelling,butitdoesn’texplainhowideasactuallyspread.

    Thesupposedimportanceofinfluentialsderivesfromaplausiblesoundingbutlargelyuntestedtheorycalledthe“twostepflowofcommunication”:Informationflowsfromthemediatotheinfluentialsandfromthemtoeveryoneelse.Marketershaveembracedthetwo-stepflowbecauseitsuggeststhatiftheycanjustfindandinfluencetheinfluentials,thoseselectedpeoplewilldomostoftheworkforthem.Thetheoryalsoseemstoexplainthesuddenandunexpectedpopularityofcertainlooks,brands,orneighborhoods.Inmanysuchcases,acursorysearchforcausesfindsthatsomesmallgroupofpeoplewaswearing,promoting,ordevelopingwhateveritisbeforeanyoneelsepaidattention.Anecdotalevidenceofthiskindfitsnicelywiththeideathatonlycertainspecialpeoplecandrivetrends

    Intheirrecentwork,however,someresearchershavecomeupwiththefindingthatinfluentialshavefarlessimpactonsocialepidemicsthanisgenerallysupposed.Infact,theydon’tseemtoberequiredofall.

    Theresearchers’argumentstemsfromasimpleobservingaboutsocialinfluence,withtheexceptionofafewcelebritieslikeOprahWinfrey-whoseoutsizepresenceisprimarilyafunctionofmedia,notinterpersonal,influence-eventhemostinfluentialmembersofapopulationsimplydon’tinteractwiththatmanyothers.Yetitispreciselythesenon-celebrityinfluentialswho,accordingtothetwo-step-flowtheory,aresupposedtodrivesocialepidemicsbyinfluencingtheirfriendsandcolleaguesdirectly.Forasocialepidemictooccur,however,eachpersonsoaffected,musttheninfluencehisorherownacquaintances,whomustinturninfluencetheirs,andsoonandjusthowmanyotherspayattentiontoeachofthesepeoplehaslittletodowiththeinitialinfluential.Ifpeopleinthenetworkjusttwodegreesremovedfromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistant,forexamplefromtheinitialinfluentialproveresistant,forexamplethecascadeofchangewon’tpropagateveryfaroraffectmanypeople.

    Buildingonthebasictruthaboutinterpersonalinfluence,theresearchersstudiedthedynamicsofpopulationsmanipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingofpopulations,manipulatinganumberofvariablesrelatingtopeople’sabilitytoinfluenceothersandtheirtendencytobeinfluenced.Ourworkshowsthattheprincipalrequirementforwhatwecall“globalcascades”-thewidespreadpropagationofinfluencethroughnetworks-isthepresencenotofafewinfluentialsbut,rather,ofacriticalmassofeasilyinfluencedpeople,eachofwhomadopts,say,alookorabrandafterbeingexposedtoasingleadoptingneighbor.Regardlessofhowinfluentialanindividualislocally,heorshecanexertglobalinfluenceonlyifthiscriticalmassisavailabletopropagateachainreaction.

    31.BycitingthebookTheTippingPoint,theauthorintendsto

    [A]analyzetheconsequencesofsocialepidemics

    [B]discussinfluentials’functioninspreadingideas

    [C]exemplifypeople’sintuitiveresponsetosocialepidemics

    [D]describetheessentialcharacteristicsofinfluentials.

    32.Theauthorsuggeststhatthe“two-step-flowtheory”

    [A]servesasasolutiontomarketingproblems

    [B]hashelpedexplaincertainprevalenttrends

    [C]haswonsupportfrominfluentials

    [D]requiressolidevidenceforitsvalidity

    33.whattheresearchershaveobservedrecentlyshowsthat

    [A]thepowerofinfluencegoeswithsocialinteractions

    [B]interpersonallinkscanbeenhancedthroughthemedia

    [C]influentialshavemorechannelstoreachthepublic

    [D]mostcelebritiesenjoywidemediaattention

    34.Theunderlinedphrase“thesepeople”inparagraph4referstotheoneswho

    [A]stayoutsidethenetworkofsocialinfluence

    [B]havelittlecontactwiththesourceofinfluence

    [C]areinfluencedandtheninfluenceothers

    [D]areinfluencedbytheinitialinfluential

    35.whatistheessentialelementinthedynamicsofsocialinfluence?

    [A]Theeagernesstobeaccepted

    [B]Theimpulsetoinfluenceothers

    [C]Thereadinesstobeinfluenced

    [D]Theinclinationtorelyonothers


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